1	Through the Microscope: A Look at Early and Late Christian Diet in Nubia Dr. Linda Scott Cummings Paleo Research Institute 2675 Youngfield St. Golden, Colorado, 80401 USA
2	2 Cemeteries at Kulubnarti in the northern Sudan (Nubia) Early Christian period (AD 550-750) on island Late Christian period (until AD 1450) west bank of the Nile
3	2 Cemeteries at Kulubnarti in the northern Sudan (Nubia) People Represented: Adults Males Females Juveniles Males Females Infants Analysis included: Pollen Phytolith Macrofloral Faunal
4	Benefits of Coprolites from Burials with Mummified Remains or Skeletons Comparisons: Diachronic – between people of the two cemeteries Male to Female Adult – Juvenile – Infant With studies of bone pathology With hair and tissue analyses
5	Agricultural Complexes: Sudanic Agricultural Complex – from West Africa North African Agricultural Complex – Middle East and Southwest Asia, Neolithic Revolution Punic and Greco-Roman North African Agricultural Complex Introduced near Carthage approximately 11th Century BC
6	Sudanic Agricultural Complex – from West Africa Cereals: Sorghum Sorghum Pennisetum Millet Digitaria Hungry rice Legumes: Vigna unguiculata Cow pea, black-eyed pea Leaf/Stalk Hibiscus Okra Roots/Tubers Kafir potato Voandzeia Bambara groundnut Dioscorea Yam Vine/Ground Citrullus Watermelon Lagenaria Bottle gourd Tree Fruit Tamarindus Tamarind
7	North African Ag. Complex – Middle East & Southwest Asia, Neolithic Revolution Cereals: Hordeum Barley Triticum Wheat Legumes: Medicago Alfalfa Vicia faba Broad bean Cicer Chick pea Lens Lentil Lupinus termis Lupine Vicia sativa Vetch Leaf/Stalk: Cynaia Artichoke Asparagus Asparagus Brassica oleracea Cabbage Apium Celery Cichorium Endive Lactuca Lettuce Root/tuber: Beta Beet Cyperus esculenta Earth almond Allium Onion Pastinaca Parsnip Raphanus Radish Vine/Ground Vitis Grape Cucumis Melon or canteloup Tree Fruit Prunus Almond Malus Apple Phoenix Date palm Ficus Fig Morus Mulberry Punica Pomegranate Condiments Numerous
8	Punic and Greco-Roman North African Agricultural Complex Introduced near Carthage approximately 11th Century BC Cereals: Panicum Millet Setaria Millet Avena Oats Secale Rye Legumes: Vicia ervilla French lentils Leaf/Stalk: Anthriscus Chervil Portulaca Purslane Spinacia Spinach Root/Tuber Daucus Carrot Tragopogon Salsify Brassica rapa Turnip Tree Fruit: Juglans Walnut Corylus Filbert/hazelnut Citrus Citrus fruits Zizania jujuba Jujube Condiments Numerous Oil, and Dye plants
9	Diet Reconstruction Pollen, phytoliths, and macrofloral remains indicate a wide variety of foods were consumed. The major components of the diet for BOTH the Early and Late Christian populations: (Observed in all coprolites) Dates Sorghum Other cereal grains including wheat
10	Date, Sorghum, & Spinach Phytoliths
11	Foods noted in more than 25% of the coprolites: Legumes Vigna unguiculata (cow pea, black-eyed pea) Cheno-am greens Cruciferae (Eruca) greens Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) greens Coccinia (scarlet-fruited gourd) Citrullus (watermelon) Fish
12	Calcium Oxalates
13	Pollen
14	Food that was noted more rarely in coprolites: Vicia (broad bean) Lens esculenta (lentil) Lupinus (lupine) Cyperaceae (probably Cyperus esculentus – earth almond) Liliaceae Luffa (luffa) or less probably Hibiscus (okra) Malvaceae (probably Jew’s mallow) Portulaca greens and possibly seeds Spinacia (spinach) Boraginaceae seeds and/or greens Vitis (grapes) Cucumis (canteloup) Corylus (hazelnut/filbert) Tamarindus (tamarind) Condiments including: Lamiaceae (rosemary, thyme, mint, etc.) Myrtaceae (cloves) Apiaceae (possibly coriander) Pig Crocodile
15	Foods have been lumped into major food categories: Category: Evidence for Consumption: Cereal Grains 100% Legumes 73% Leaf and Stalk Vegetables 69% Vine and Ground Fruits 44% Legumes/Greens/Yellow vegetables: 91% Tree Fruits 100% (dates) Condiments <25% Meat <25%
16	Pollen and Phytolith Ubiquity
17	Early vs. Late Christian Diet Male vs. Female Adult vs. Juvenile All yielded little difference in diet. No frequently occurring elements of the diet for any one group were absent in any other group. Early Christian population exhibited similar variety of foods consumed between adults and juveniles and between males and females. The Late Christian population exhibited greater variety in the diet of adults than juveniles, which might be a factor of small population of juveniles (only 4 individuals) – or lack of variety relating to small sample size.
18	Possible Dietary Deficiencies: Calories (not enough food consumed) Water-soluble, heat-sensitive vitamins Vitamin C Vitamins B-6, B-12, folacin Low bioavailability of iron combined with Vitamin C deficiency further lowers the absorption rate of iron at least on a seasonal basis Seasonal deficiencies: Vitamins A, K, B-1 Calcium Deficiencies in protein and Vitamin E possible
19	Skeletal observations: Cribra Orbitalia accompanies iron deficiency Analysis of coprolites for pollen, phytoliths, and macrofossil remains from which to reconstruct the diet contributes a new dimension to the study of cribra orbitalia and iron deficiency within the Kulubnarti populations. These data bases provide direct evidence concerning foods eaten, and help to identify factors contributing to iron deficiency anemia within the population. These factors appear to include primarily vitamin C deficiency, which lowers the absorption rate of iron, and presence of fiber, tannins, and phytates, which bind with iron, blocking absorption. Additional forms of anemia are probable and due to deficiencies in Vitamins B-6, B-12, and folacin, which are scarce in the diet and destroyed by cooking.